Kokang(果敢), Burma

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Note: Kokang is the place in area marked A

What is 8:8 incident?

Bangkok Post reported on 27-8-2009:
More fighting is expected in northeastern Burma after tensions between the junta and ethnic rebel groups forced tens of thousands to flee across the Chinese border, activists said Thursday.

The exodus from Kokang in Shan State began on August 8 after Burma's junta deployed troops to the mainly ethnic Chinese region, said the US Campaign for Burma (USCB), which uses Burma's former name.

Where is Kokang?

Kokang (果敢), formally the First Special Region, is a self-administrative region of Burma (also More fighting is expected in northeastern Burma after tensions between the junta and ethnic rebel groups forced tens of thousands to flee across the Chinese border, activists said Thursday.as Myanmar). It is located in the northern part of Shan State, with the Salween River to its west, and it shares a border with China's Yunnan Province in the east. Its total land area is around 10,000 square kilometres (3,900 sq mi). The capital is Laukkai (老街 Lǎojiē). Kokang is mostly populated by Kokang people, a Han Chinese group living in Burma.

Historically, Kokang was Burma's feudal state for Burmese Chinese. It was founded by the Yang Clan, a Chinese military house that fled with the Ming loyalists to Yunnan Province in the mid-1600s and later migrated to the Shan State in eastern Burma. From the 1960s to 1989 the area was ruled by the Communist Party of Burma, and after the dissolution of that party in 1989 it became a special region of Burma.

History

The state was officially founded by Yang Shien Tsai (杨献才); who began his reign in 1739 in and around Ta Shwe Htan, then called Shin Da Hu (兴达户), and took the title "Chief of Shin Da Hu". He was succeeded on his death in 1758 by his son Yang Wei Shin (杨维兴), later referred to as Chief of Kho Kan Shan.

He expanded his territory tenfold compared to that inherited from his predecessor. After his death in 1795, his son Yang Yon Gen (杨有根) became the chief. He soon renamed the state as Kokang and titled himself Heng of Kokang.

The Heng was succeeded after his death in 1874 by his younger brother Yang Guo Zhen (杨国正), who ruled peacefully and began relations with Britain upon the annexation of Upper Burma. In 1916 he went blind, and abdicated in favour of his nephew Yang Chun Yon (杨春荣). The new ruler then took the Burmese title Myosa (lit. town eat, given to a prince). He died in 1927 and was succeeded by his son Colonel Sao Yang Wen Pin (杨文炳), Saopha of Kokang.

For the services of Kokang during World War II, it was recognised as separate from Shan State in August 1947 by the British, and the ruler took the title Saopha. He died in 1949 and was succeeded by his son Sao Edward Yang Kyein Tsai who was deposed by the Burmese in 1959.

After the collapse of the Communist Party of Burma in 1989, Kokang was assigned as the autonomous First Special Region of the northern Shan State of Burma.

In 2003, a comprehensive ban on the cultivation of the opium poppy came into effect. Due to the attendant food shortage, among other things, 2003 also saw a large-scale outbreak of malaria in mountain villages with authorities reporting some 279 deaths. During this time the Chinese government sent mobile medical units and supplies to the region, with the United Nations World Food Program also sending disaster relief soon after.

In April 2005, the Japanese government (JICA: Japan International Cooperation Agency) launched a new project to rebuild the lives of farmers in these mountain areas.

In August 2009, Kokang was the site of a violent conflict, the Kokang incident, between junta forces and various ethnic armies.

Population
In 2000, the population was reported to be around 18,000.[citation needed] In 2003, it was reported to be approximately 140,000;[citation needed] in 2009, 150,000.[1] Of these, around 100,000 are Burmese, the remainder being Chinese. Of the Burmese, 90% are ethnic Han Chinese, with others being Shan, Palaung, Hmong, Va, Lisaw, Naman and Burman. The large majority of ethnic Burmans are those dispatched to the region by the central government as military and administrative personnel and their families, primary school teachers, skilled workers, medical workers and other public service personnel. Because of the effective disappearance of the narcotics trade, many have lost their source of income and many Chinese have left the region.

(source:extract from wikipedia)




果敢（Kokang），全名緬甸撣邦第一特區，是緬甸聯邦邊境的果敢族自治區，首府老街市。1989年脫離緬共成立特區政府，全區面積約2,700平方公里。通行果敢語（漢語）[3]。

果敢族是緬甸官方的法定少數民族，是世居緬北的漢族，緬甸獨立後獲得少數民族的地位。

果敢位於撣邦高原，面積約2700平方公里，四面以高山或河流為界，境內遍佈高山深壑，全境海拔在450至2400米之間，山與山之間的壩子海拔約1100米。主要精華區位中部的麻栗壩山間盆地。疆域西抵薩爾溫江與木邦相峙，南以南定河與佤邦（撣邦第二特區）相對，東與中國雲南省鎮康縣為鄰，少部份與耿馬傣族佤族自治縣接壤，北面是龍陵縣、潞西市。[12]

歷史

果敢曾為中國西南邊境少數民族的地域，明朝末年大量漢族隨桂王湧入雲南省。18世紀，一支漢人移民後裔成為科干山的地方勢力，後受封世襲治理果敢，向中國效忠。19世紀末，果敢被劃入英屬印度，成為緬甸境內以華人為主體的土司縣。1959年緬甸廢除土司制度之後，果敢陷入了長期的動亂，直至1989年停戰方趨於穩定，成為今日的撣邦第一特區。

清朝以前

果敢地區在歷史上多屬於地方土司管理的地區，未成為中央集權國家所能有效控制的邊境地區；崎嶇複雜的地形決定了其多樣化的民族組成。

該地曾為哀牢百濮的地域，後哀牢內附東漢，該地屬於東漢永昌郡西南邊陲。三國時代蜀漢諸葛亮在平南時在諸葛炮樓山留下了遺蹟。在白族大理國時期，劃屬永昌府孟纏甸範圍。元代，分屬雲南省鎮康路、孟定路孟纏甸的一部份。明代，則屬鎮康土州以及孟定土府的疆域。[4]17世紀南明政權向西南方敗退，大規模的漢人隨著桂王永曆明軍遷徙雲南。

楊姓土司時期

18世紀，鎮康州以及木邦的交界處出現了楊姓漢人土司政權，楊獻才與繼任者楊維興以興達戶為基礎，對外擴張勢力。1840年，第四代領導者楊國華因為清朝捍衛邊防有功，受封為世襲果敢縣令。[5][6][7][8]

此後果敢土司長期同時向中國以及木邦進貢。1885年，大英帝國併吞緬甸貢榜王朝，同時將緬甸北方臣服於緬甸的土司也納入英屬印度。英國與清朝簽訂條約，界定了中緬兩國邊境傳統上沒有穩定歸屬的土司；一些被分為清朝所有，一些則屬於英屬緬甸。經過多年談判，1897年《中英續議緬甸條約》果敢被劃入英屬印度的範圍，[9][5][6]成為木邦大土司轄下的小土司邦。

二戰之後，果敢與鄰近的土司邦一同自英國獨立，組成緬甸聯邦。此後果敢獲得大土司的地位，不再從屬於木邦。楊姓土司的世襲統治權至1959年結束，歷時兩百餘年的果敢土司至此交權予地方議會。[10]

戰亂時期

土司政權結束之後，土司家族的影響仍在。數年後，土司家族成員楊振聲起兵反抗緬甸政府；政府軍施行「以果制果」的政策，策動羅星漢擊潰果敢的反緬甸部隊，土司家族的軍隊敗逃。楊振聲部退入泰國，彭家聲部則退入中國。政府軍進佔果敢，指派親緬族的羅星漢管理果敢。

緬共統治時期

1960年代緬甸共產黨失去位於緬甸中部的根據地之後，在中華人民共和國的支持下，在緬甸東北部整裝待發。彭家聲率領緬共軍隊重新佔領果敢，羅星漢部敗退離開。

1980年代國際情勢改變，緬甸共產黨內部嚴重分歧，包含果敢的少數民族的當地武裝勢力遂脫離緬共，將緬共的領導人遣送中國，與緬甸軍政府停戰並展開和平談判。

撣邦第一特區

1989年，彭家聲與政府軍達成協議，果敢成為自治的特區。特區具備有限的軍力，中央政府派駐少量的公共服務人員至果敢，[11]包含醫務人員，小學教師。1992年內戰再起，軍官楊茂良聯合南方的佤邦驅逐特區主席彭家聲，1995年彭家聲與佤邦合作，重掌果敢政局。

在國際反毒的壓力下以及多次禁毒挫敗之後，2003年終於全面推行停止種植罌粟的政策，引入農業生產技術並發展博弈業。然而產業轉型果敢境內的民族，約佔九成以上為漢族（緬甸称為果敢族），另當地有撣族、崩龍族、苗族、佤族、傈僳族、克欽族等少數民族，通用果敢語（漢語西南官話）。並且有中央政府派駐的少量的緬族人士，多從事教育、公共服務事業。除此之外，尚有許多來自中國雲南省的華僑，多集中在市區經商。

2004年缅甸政府曾经頒發予果敢人一种有别于缅甸国民的身份证，爾后受到果敢领袖彭家声等人的反对未能实施；果敢人一般并没有缅甸军政府所发送的任何一种有效的身份证件。通用果敢語對果敢帶來相當大的衝擊，替代種植在果敢高冷乾的環境推行困難重重，農民陷入貧困。由於缺乏糧食等原因而在山村地區爆發大規模的瘧疾，死亡279人。國際展開人道救援，聯合國糧食及農業組織提供救濟糧。而日本外務省的國際協力機構於2005年開始，與特區政府合作進行長期的總合性重建工作。2009年“8.8事件”後，果敢新政府主席是由原副主席白所成担任，刘国玺副主席兼任秘书长。新政府排除了彭家聲的黨羽，外界猜測彭家聲已经失去对果敢政府的控制权。[來源請求]

果敢境內的民族
果敢境內的民族，約佔九成以上為漢族（緬甸称為果敢族），另當地有撣族、崩龍族、苗族、佤族、傈僳族、克欽族等少數民族，通用果敢語（漢語西南官話）。並且有中央政府派駐的少量的緬族人士，多從事教育、公共服務事業。除此之外，尚有許多來自中國雲南省的華僑，多集中在市區經商。

2004年缅甸政府曾经頒發予果敢人一种有别于缅甸国民的身份证，爾后受到果敢领袖彭家声等人的反对未能实施；果敢人一般并没有缅甸军政府所发送的任何一种有效的身份证件


經濟

果敢在經濟上屬相對落後的地區，自英國殖民於緬甸以來，以種植罌粟為主，以出產優質大煙聞名於世。在20世紀初土司治理的時期，曾有一段繁榮的歷史，罌粟也逐漸成為果敢唯一的經濟來源。

由於長年戰亂，原有的經濟建設、政治體制、社會基礎皆遭受極大的破壞，使基礎建設被破壞以後未獲重建且停滯不前，直到停戰以後才穩定發展。但2003年果敢停止生產罌粟，切斷了當地的經濟來源，且替代種植的情況並不理想，經濟遭受嚴重衝擊。另一方面，果敢的產業朝向博彩業發展，主要對中國招攬遊客，有小澳門之稱，但近年財政收入因中國政府對境外賭博旅遊有所限制而隨之銳減。

(source: extract from wikipedia)

News updated on 9-9-2009
Myanmar's Kokang ethnic region in the northeast will become an autonomous region after 2010 general election in accordance with the new state constitution, Deputy Home Minister Brigadier Phone Swe briefed that a "Leading Committee for Development in Kokang Region", led by Prime Minister General Thein Sein, was formed on Sept. 1 along with the establishment of the "Working Committee for Development in Kokang Region", headed by the Deputy Home Minister.

A "Kokang Region Provisional Leading Committee", led by the government, was also set up in Laukkai on Aug. 30. The said administrative machinery will work until the emergence of administrative and judicial bodies in the Kokang autonomous region after the general election,

Phone Swe told that starting Aug.29 at 6 p.m. (local time), the Myanmar security forces have totally controlled the Kokang region, restoring law and order and maintaining social stability there.

Kokang, with an area of 5,200 square-kilometers, bordering China's Zhen Kang, Geng Ma, Meng Ding and Long Ling areas, has a population of about 150,000.
(source:http://news.xinhuanet.com/)